PiMRef: Deducing Ever-evolving Spear-phishing Emails with Knowledge Base Invariants

Compared to existing baselines such as D-Fence, HelpHed, and ChatSpamDetector, PimRef reduces the false-positive rate to 0.81\% while maintaining a recall of 90.7\%-93.1\% on conventional phishing benchmarks such as Nazario and PhishPot. It comes from a paper posted to arXiv on 9 September 2026. Phishing email is a critical step in the cybercrime kill chain due to the high reachability of victims' email accounts and the low cost of launching phishing campaigns. This ever-evolving nature of phishing emails makes traditional rule-based and feature-engineering-based phishing email detectors fight an uphill battle in the cat-and-mouse game of defense and attack. In this work, we show that, large language models (LLMs) can be effectively exploited to generate profile-grounded spear-phishing, compromising major paradigms of phishing email detectors. To defend against such LLM-based spear-phishing attacks, we propose PiMRef, the first reference-based solution to detect ever-evolving phishing emails using knowledge-based invariants, targeting the identity-impersonation attacks that characterize spear-phishing. Our rationale lies in the fact that convincing phishing emails often include ``disprovable claims'', which contradict certain real-world facts. Technically, given an email, PiMRef (i) discovers the claimed identity of the sender, (ii) verifies the sender's email domain against a dynamically expandable knowledge base, and (iii) infers call-to-action instructions that encourage next-step engagement. On SpearMail, our newly constructed benchmark of 14,672 LLM-generated spear-phishing emails targeting 681 public profiles, PimRef reaches a recall of 86.4\% without incurring additional false positives. Our code is publicly available at https://github.com/code-philia/PhishEmail.

Why it counts

Compared to existing baselines such as D-Fence, HelpHed, and ChatSpamDetector, PimRef reduces the false-positive rate to 0.81\% while maintaining a recall of 90.7\%-93.1\% on conventional phishing benchmarks such as Nazario and PhishPot. To defend against such LLM-based spear-phishing attacks, we propose PiMRef, the first reference-based solution to detect ever-evolving phishing emails using knowledge-based invariants, targeting the identity-impersonation attacks that characterize spear-phishing.

Sources

Primary source: primary source

What is not known

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